Communication Theory: Symbolic Interactionism

Abstract: Symbolic Interactionism is an approach that examines behavior and the creation of society through the study of human interaction, roles and language as symbols. It suggests that societies and humans may only exist in relation to one another, they are constantly changing, and therefore people are a reflection of the society or reality they create, and must deal with it’s consequences.

The Interactionist perspective says that human interaction is symbolic of the larger society humans live in, hence the term ‘symbolic interactionism.’ Human beings create a reality that encompasses their morals, ethics, values, beliefs, attitudes and perceptions through social interaction with each other. Society is created and re-created by the establishment of rules and alteration of those rules over time by the people who choose to live in that society. People are, therefore, a reflection of the society they create. How people behave in their every day lives, how they interact and the language they use communicates human reality as seen by the interactionist perspective. This paper will examine what symbolic interactionism is, where it came from, what influences contributed to its development and evolution over time and it will break it down into its major components in order to better understand the interactionist perspective and approach.

Symbolic Interactionism (or Interactionism) is an American sociological and social psychological, theoretical perspective that suggests the idea that symbols and meaning are a reflection of society, created through human interaction, and examinable by humans’ use of language, communication, and interaction. Interactionism is used as a method of studying every day life, focusing it’s attention on drawing conclusions about the “creation of a person’s self and socialization into a larger community” (Nelson, 1998). Symbolic Interactionism is a “means for intelligent expression; the way we learn to interpret the world” (Mead, 1934). According to the socio-cultural tradition, the theory suggests that “Humans act toward people, things, and events on the basis of the meaning they assign to them. Once people define a situation as real, it has very real consequences. Without language there would be no thought, no sense of self, and no socializing presence of society within the individual” (Griffin, 2008).

The term “symbolic interactionism” was coined by Herbert Blumer in 1937, in his article entitled, “Man and Society.” Herbert Blumer was a student at the University of Chicago and went on to instruct classes there as well. He described the symbolic interactionist approach as a “down-to-earth approach to the scientific study of human group life and human conduct. Its empirical world is the natural world of such group life and conduct. It lodges its problems in this natural world, conducts its studies in it, and derives its interpretations from such naturalistic studies” (Blumer, 1986). Herbert Blumer and his work have lived on through the influence he and his work have had over generations of interactionist who continue to dedicate themselves to examining life through his perspective today.

Although Blumer is considered the founder of symbolic interactionism, the thought behind the interactionism perspective actually began with George Herbert Mead in the early 1900’s. Mead was a Harvard graduate turned philosopher and psychologist who became a founder of both pragmatism and social psychology. He was a professor at the University of Chicago before Herbert Blumer took over his classes following Mead’s passing in the early 1930’s due to heart failure. The roots of what is now known as the interactionist perspective grew from George Herbert Mead’s thoughts on social behaviorism.

Social behaviorism as described in his book, “Mind, Self and Society from the standpoint of a social behaviorist,” deals with the psychological study of the effects community has on a community member. Social behaviorism examines the relationship between people and the social group they belong to in order to make assumptions, connections or explain behavior. The standpoint of a social behaviorist aided the development of interactionism due to its emphasis on the effects that communication through language as symbols have on society, and it’s nature. Mead, speaking from the standpoint of a social behaviorist, emphasized the importance of “dealing with experience from the standpoint of society” (Mead, 1934). He felt that communication was essential to social order since experience belongs to the individual, the individual belongs to society, and communication is derived from experience, and interaction in society.

Other sources of influence for the perspective were pulled from “early twentieth-century Chicago sociologists W.I. Thomas, Robert Park, and Everette Hughes,” who presented “views of social processes, social organization, and social change,” and pragmatism (Hall, 2008). Pragmatism is the philosophy of “considering practical consequences or real effects to be vital components of meaning and truth,” which originated with Charles Pierce in the late nineteenth century (Wikipedia contributors, 2009). It was Pierce’s views on thought and language that had the most influence on symbolic interactionism. Pragmatism emphasizes the importance of the study of action, interpretation, memory, and retention and how it effects human knowledge of what is real, and useful. Also a founder of the school of pragmatism, was philosopher John Dewey, who declared that there was greater understanding to be found in studying human beings in relation to their environment, marking his contribution to the development of the interactionist perspective (Nelson, 1998).

After the establishment of Symbolic Interactionism, it became influential in the 1960’s, challenging “the dominance of Talcott Parsons and Grand Theory” (Marshall, 1990). Parsons was known for his “attempt to construct a single theoretical framework within which general and specific characteristics of societies could be systematically classified” (Parsons, 1998). Grand Theory states that “the formal organization and arrangement of concepts takes priority over understanding the social world” (Marshall, 1998). It challenged these theories because Interactionism is founded on the idea that societies are dynamic, and interactive, not fixed or unchangeable and therefore cannot be classified in a systematic manner.

Over time symbolic interactionism has matured into a more sophisticated, and increasingly relevant theory. It, since, has become applicable to newer phenomena introduced in the 1990’s, such as, “post-modernism, feminism, semiology, and cultural theory” (Marshall, 1998). Today, organizations such as The Society for the Study of Symbolic Interaction dedicate themselves to interactionist research. Their journals examine issues such as the Iraq War, political struggles, and Imagined Masculinity from an interactionist perspective. “Symbolic Interactionists have contributed to many facets of the social work knowledge base, including human behavior theory, social work practice models, theories of social problems, the planned change process, social work research, professional socialization procedures, and social policy analysis” (Reynolds, 2003). Although the approach has received much criticism and debate over the decades, it has maintained its usefulness in examining the social construction of reality and has had a tremendous impact on more sociological, communication and psychological studies than it has been given credit for.

To understand what the interactionist perspective is, and gain insight into what is symbolic interactionism, it is essential to break down it’s components, and take a closer look at the important roles they play in the approach as a whole. Symbolic Interactionism has three core principles that assist in understanding human beings. Interactionists examine interaction and role playing, the use of symbols and meaning, the “self” humans create, reflective thought and action, and the role these elements and their transactions play in developing a culture over time, for better or for worse.

Meaning is determined by the field of experience of the person receiving a message. It is a persons knowledge or assumptions gained from experiences interacting in society that determines how that person will interpret or perceive a message. It is that framework that makes it possible to decode messages sent. Meaning is dependent on the response a message is given when received. David Berlo, a communications theorist, says that “Meanings are in people…we transmit messages, not meanings.” Words are generally thought to have meaning, but with regards to the interactionist perspective they are simply symbols that represent a thought or idea based on the experience of the person transmitting the message. They are the vehicle with which an attempt to transmit meaning is driven. “Meaning arises and lies within the field of the relation between the gesture of a given human organism and the subsequent behavior of this organism as indicated to another human organism by that gesture” (Mead, 1934). This says that true meaning is only observable by the interpretation the person receiving that message assigns to it from their point of view or frame of reference. The interactionist approach looks beyond the symbol being used, avoiding the generalization or assumption of meanings.

Symbols enable humans to interact and communicate by understanding shared meanings they have for words, actions, and objects. “Symbolization highlights the process through which events and conditions, artifacts and edifices, people and aggregations, and other features of the ambient environment take on particular meanings, becoming object of orientation that elicit specifiable feelings and actions” (Reynolds, 2003).

Symbols are social objects that successfully communicate or stimulate common meanings assigned by society members created by their interaction over time. Examples of symbols are uniforms that may communicate authority, colors or shapes that signal stop or go commands, a hand gesture that communicates a greeting or departure, or a flag that signals the last lap of a race. These objects are all understood to have important meaning and therefore are symbolic to the society from which they are being used. Objects, according to Interactionists, include animals, people, physical objects, emotions and ideas and they are only meaningful to people in a society when they are given symbolic significance.

Interactionists further examine human behavior and interaction through the study of language. Language is approached with consideration to experience, emotional agenda, surrounding environment and conditions, and the effects they have on the motivation of the person communicating, in order to interpret their individual intentions. People often times “assume that there are sets of ideas in persons' minds and that these individuals make use of certain arbitrary symbols which answer to the intent which the individuals had. But if we are going to broaden the concept of language ... so that it takes in the underlying attitudes, we can see that the so-called intent, the idea we are talking about, is one that is involved in the gesture or attitudes which we are using” (Mead, 1934). This means that the language people use is symbolic of not only the message they are trying to communicate, but of their orientation, background, and environment.

“It is language that allows persons to incorporate into their own selves the thoughts, beliefs, and sentiments brought from their respective social habitats” (Reynolds, 2003). The language presented by people is a reflection of the society from which they belong. “The mechanism of role taking is language and, dialectally, language acquisition is a product of socialization…The person is able to be an object to himself or herself only through the use of language. Language, of course, is available in society, and only in society. Society’s existence means the presence of role taking…” (Reynolds, 2003).

Language allows people of a society to take on roles which is the mechanism by which humans develop as a part of society. “By taking the role of others we can see ourselves as we imagine others see us and arouse in ourselves the responses we call out in others” (Reynolds, 2003). With internal dialoguing humans are able to make indications from social interaction in order to negotiate meaning and rehearse appropriate action in response to a situation. “The actor, shaped by the environment and target audience, sees interaction as a performance. Impression management is highly dependent on the situation” (Becker, 1990). The roles people perform are almost like different versions of themselves depending on their surrounding. The performance is based on what they consider socially acceptable in their mind and how well they perform that role depends on how clear their role expectations are. It is not that people are pretending, they are simply highlighting and dimming out certain parts of themselves for what they feel as appropriate for any given situation. George Herbert Mead said that, “A multiple personality is in a certain sense normal.” This is because people alter their outer appearance, clothes, facial expressions, language, and in a sense, personality in an effort to provide a message that appropriately supports the role they are playing depending on their situation. “Learning to act out appropriate roles is a fundamental aspect of human development…One’s own ability to use significant symbols to respond to one’s self makes the thinking process possible” (Wikipedia contributors, 2009). Assuming the role of another helps human beings determine behavior and create a self image. “…role taking is the basic mechanism giving birth to the self” (Reynolds, 2003).

Thought is a tool that measures response and produces behavior. “All mental processes are activities. This active conception of mind implies that thinking is an act of doing just as behavior” (Davetian, 2009). An individual’s mind carries within it the meanings and symbols it has learned in the individual’s lifetime. Thought is the internal conversation and the self is whom a person converses with internally. “Mental activity is a conversation with self” (Davetian, 2009). The mind is where meaning, negotiation, restrain, rehearsal, problem-solving ability, and judgments are created. The self is actually produced by the mind. “The organization of the self is simply the organization, by the individual organism, of the set of attitudes toward its social environment- and toward itself from the standpoint of that environment…” (Mead, 1934).

Mind activity, or thought, and internal dialogue provide the basis for producing behavior, but for what purpose? “The goal of all thought, of all inquiry, is to come up with satisfactions and goods, and in general to create solutions…” when faced with life situations people work out internally what behavior would be appropriate for the situation or dilemma and how that particular solution will make them look to others (Reynolds, 2003). Thought is not considered by Interactionists to be a separate entity from behavior, thought is “…but an instrument for response and behavior…” (Reynolds, 2003). It produces behavior that is fueled by what knowledge, experience, emotion, and framework the individual possesses. “…emotion is socially patterned and vital to the maintenance, recreation, and confirmation of social organization” (Reynolds, 2003). Role taking helps individuals to think, to negotiate, and to make decisions about their behavior, even reflect on past behavior. “The process of ‘the turning back of the experience of the individual upon himself’ is the essence of reflective thought” (Reynolds, 2003). Mead called reflective thought the “mind.”

A society consists of people who interact, share a culture, communicate shared knowledge and cooperate with their society’s characteristics or standards. Social groups and individuals present only in relation to one another. “The world we live in is a self-created one” (Reynolds, 2003). It is created through human interaction. The “cardinal principle of symbolic interactionism is that any empirically oriented scheme of human society, however derived, must respect the fact that in the first and last instances human society consists of people engaging in action” (Blumer, 1986) It is ongoing and the “essence of society” (Heath, 2000). It is the continued interaction of human beings that develops and maintains culture, and is responsible for change in that culture. Individuals are influenced by society, but they do have the ability to change it.. It is interaction within those societies that creates the nature of society, it’s customs, traditions, values, roles, norms, rules, authority, and social status. They are all products of how human beings act toward each other, what they do, and how they deal with or confront situations.

Blumer describes large group action in advanced societies as consisting of “highly recurrent, stable patterns that establish common, established meanings for the participants and new situates present problems requiring adjustment and redefinition.” The purpose of symbolic interactionism is to examine how humans interact in their roles in groups and society. Behavior and communication, in terms of their relation to symbols and society, are the focus of the interactionist perspective, and there is value in what people can learn about themselves and their society. “By consequence, symbols make people interdependent by providing them with a common socially-defined reality” (Davetian, 2009). Awareness of this interdependence may allow people to find more control in changing their social reality.

Human society depends on naming, memorizing and categorizing, perception, deliberation and problem solving, transcendence of time and space, transcendence of one’s own person, and imagination of abstract reality or conceptualization (Davetian, 2009). “Interactionists claim that the extent of knowing is dependent on the extent of naming” (Griffin, 2008). Sharing words, symbols and meanings allows society to be a logical, consistent and harmonious whole. “Just as the ‘invisible hand of order’ can guide economic relations, ‘social forces’ can guide social relations, and thus yield for society very positive outcomes (volunteerism, democracy, laws, moral and ethical standards for behavior, family and educational systems, communities) and very negative outcomes (discrimination, organized crime, moral decay, warfare, poverty)” (Turner, 2001).

Categorizing may assist in defining objects and creating society, but what the interactionist approach, when applied to current issues, can teach society is how naming and categorizing can be limiting and in some circumstances damaging. Naming is just a small example of the power that society, as a whole, has over the people who interact in it. Once people create a society of real things, those things in turn have an effect over the members of that society. Reality carries with it serious consequences.

People of society tend to hold onto and believe the meanings that are assigned through social interaction over time because of the consequences they know will follow if they reject them. Human beings, according to Maslow, have an inherent need to belong, including “the need for mastery to be able to get one's own way, to establish some control over one's situation and environment, to express some degree of personal power, to be able to communicate and obtain objectives. And the need for love, affection and belonging. People need to escape feelings of loneliness and alienation and to give (and receive) love and affection, and to have a sense of belonging with high quality communication (with understanding and empathy)” (Shepard, 2009). It is basic human need that makes conformity a natural part of human development. As individuals take their role in a society there is much risk involved in trying to challenge that role. Symbolic interactionism brings an awareness, a consciousness to society, revealing weaknesses and flaws in its make up.

The language, words, and symbols in human society that people create and categorize contribute to the power of the media, gender role inequalities, sexism, racism, ageism, stereotyping, and the general inconsistent or unequal treatment of people of society. This arises from a dulled level of consciousness concerning issues facing members of society who are not of the majority or not in power. “Discriminatory or stereotypical language exists for any group whose physical appearance, behavior or belief vary from those in the mainstream” (Kessler, 2003). This type of language is not always obvious in its discrimination. It is symbolic of common images for people of societies and this is why it is so easy for the categorization of words to assist in the injustices that take place within society. “Most white, middle-class citizens see society from a monocultural perspective, a perspective that assumes, often unconsciously, that persons of all races are in the same cultural system together. This single-system form of seeing the world, is blind to its own cultural specificity. People who see persons of other races monoculturally cannot imagine the reality that those ‘others’ think of themselves not in relation to the majority race but in terms of their own culturally specific identities” (McIntosh, 1998).

Race inequality is an ongoing issue in society that the interactionist perspective may be able to offer insight into. Thinking a particular way because that is what society has taught, because that is what one learned as they developed behaviors that modeled that society is not an excuse for ignorance of all people within a social group. Symbolic Interactionism opens a door to question the society built before the birth of new generations and demands that humans take responsibility for the construction of their reality. How people communicate and interact within a society says something about human beings and people should answer to what society is saying. The purpose of Interactionists is to look at behavior to uncover the effects of interaction and symbols because the effects can be significant indicators of societal functioning and societal issues. Does language and symbols reinforce behavior that would demean or stereotype people and support prejudice behavior? Interactionists’ purpose may be to see how this behavior and these symbols “demean not only the group being stereotyped but also all of us who strive to live in a civilized society” (Kessler, 2003). Fortunately, Interactionism “promotes the idea that nothing in society is determined, and that people can break free of a label as individuals” (Wikipedia contributors, 2009).

Although research appears to not credit the use of symbolic interactionism in the media and in marketing with as great of emphasis as is due, in the future it is foreseeable that it will receive the attention it deserves. Is it not worthy at least to consider; if humans interact with media in excess more than the social world around them, does that not increase how the media contributes to a person’s identity? If what we see and read contributes to a person’s perception of things, then is media not an object no different from other objects of society?

The fast food industry, for example, markets themselves with symbols that are commonly recognizable by people. Their marketing is focused on primary colors that “generate a hunger in society upon sight because they symbolically represent ketchup and mustard, thus, with hungry people, the traffic of customers increases” (Wikipedia contributors, 2009). The power of the media is a long debated one. With consideration to symbolic interactionism, the media definitely affects behavior and should not just be studied through simple polls and surveys, but examined and investigated for the potential danger of how it is contributing to peoples’ identities, their perception, and development of meaning. When people submit their personal identity to a dominant culture or ideology, like the media, who communicates in a manner so not to disrupt human’s inner societal balance, then individuals in society will continue to reinforce such media and its dominant force of influence over society.

Symbolic Interactionism is applicable and valuable in studying the behavior of society today in dealing with contemporary issues and inequality, power struggles, mass media, marketing, and the use of language as symbols in communication in, and out of the organization. It remains a useful approach for examining how language, thought, meaning, symbols, the roles humans play, behavior, and how they interact to create and re-create society.

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Kessler, McDonald, Lauren, Duncan. When Words Collide: A Media Writer's Guide to Grammar and Style. 6. Wadsworth, 2003.

McIntosh, Peggy. "White Privilege and Male Privilege: A Personal Account of Coming to See Correspondences Through Work in Women's Studies." Wessley College, Center for Research for Women 1998 1-19. 02 March 2009

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In The Shoes of a PR Professional

Abstract:  Representing XYZ Company as its Public Relations Director requires research into the organization itself, its environment and stakeholders, careful planning of goals and objectives that support the organization’s mission, and strategic communication to build lasting, mutually beneficial relationships with its stakeholders.  This planning will allow for the evaluation of the public relations plan so to measure its worth against the bottom line.

            I have been hired as the Public Relations Director for XYZ Company.  “Many organizations…are making a move away from the term ‘public relations’ towards ‘corporate communications management’ in the naming of their restructured public relations and public affairs departments” (Oliver 1).  I firmly agree with that move because the focus of my job as the Public Relations Director is to manage communication activities on behalf of the company in order to build and maintain relationships between XYZ Company and its publics.  The following describes nine contributions that are made by a public relations department:  Awareness and information, organizational motivation, issue anticipation, opportunity identification, crisis management, overcoming executive isolation, change agentry, social responsibility, and influencing public policy (3).  These nine contributions all rely on communication, although they are meaningless without direction.  My job will be to lead the strategy and action of the public relations team to ensure its goals have meaning.  “Public relations should have a purpose within the organization.  And this purpose should provide value for an organization” (2).  In order to establish a new public relations program that will have purpose and provide value for XYZ Company, I will need to get acquainted with the company, set public relations goals and objectives that support the organization’s mission, and build relationships through strategic communication with its stakeholders.   This method follows the basic steps of public relations which are easily remembered with the models RACE (research, action planning, communication, and evaluation) or ROPE (research, objectives, programming, and evaluation) (6).  As the new Public Relations Director for XYZ Company, I will begin the public relations planning process by doing research, starting from within the company for which I have been hired. 

            To get acquainted with XYZ Company I need to research its background, current goals and objectives, and get to know its environment.  I will accomplish this by reading about its history, reading its mission statement if there is one currently in existence, I will look at its annual reports, brochures, training manuals if any exist, policies that are currently in place, and talk to its employees at all organizational levels.  This is why it is necessary to know one’s organization and its publics so that you may develop a plan that facilitates understanding and generates support from the organization’s publics.         My next source of information on XYZ Company also comes from within the organization itself. 

            It is too often forgotten who a company’s greatest ambassadors are.  They are the employees, the legs on which a company stands.  “Engaged and loyal employees make a good company great.  They improve your company’s reputation with the general public and help bring in top talent” (Ruder Finn Inc).  Getting to know the organizational culture for which you represent is a valuable tool in determining the direction of your public relations plan.  The employees of XYZ Company offer great insight into the organization’s strengths, and weaknesses leading my PR team to potential opportunities for improvement or advancement.  Another resource in developing a public relations plan for XYZ Company is its communities.

            Hearing stories and obtaining feedback from the community in which XYZ Company is located, as well as the communities it serves with its products, is another step in getting acquainted with the company.   The community’s attitude toward, and interest in XYZ Company can be a determining factor in whether or not the organization continues to operate in that particular community, making it an essential part of public relations research.  Because “Very small forces, sometimes individuals, can stop very big ideas and projects” and because “People without credentials [can] have enormous credibility” it is essential to know where the community stands with regard to XYZ Company (Cohn).  Having thorough knowledge of XYZ as a business, its employees, and its community leaves me with one final area of research necessary before determining who the company’s stakeholders are and doing a SWOT analysis.

            I will also collect information on XYZ’s competitors.  Lain Maitland, author of the book Perfect PR, offers the following advice:  “Do consider your rivals-this information can prove invaluable to you during your PR activities…Try to recognize their strengths and weaknesses so far as customers are concerned; and how you can use these to your advantage” (Maitland 9).  Much can be learned with regard to one’s organization when they observe other organizations within the related industry.  It is not only valuable to learn from their mistakes, but to know their weaknesses and your own so that you may emphasize your assets in your public relations efforts.  Competitors may be evaluated with regard to their goods, services, location, facility they operate out of, marketing activities, advertising activities, and public relations tactics (Maitland).  Researching competitors does not stop at the particular industry that XYZ Company is in; research must extend outside of its market as well.  External influences must be determined, such as the current market, future markets, and regulatory organizations in order to foresee potential barriers, problems, and/or opportunities for the XYZ Company.  Now that I have familiarized myself with the company I represent and its environment, as the Public Relations Director of XYZ Company, I can move onto determining who the stakeholders of my organization are.

            An essential element of the public relations plan is determining who effects XYZ Company and who XYZ Company effects, these are its publics.  My job requires me to “develop a consistent corporate message (and tone) that appropriately reflects the organization in the way that organization wishes to be reflected” (Oliver 15).  This is not possible without a clear understanding of the organization itself, and its stakeholders.  Consistent communication does not mean communicating the same message to all audiences, which is why it is not only necessary, but crucial to identify and classify XYZ Company’s stakeholders.  “Public relations practitioners segment the general public into key publics with messages created to address their interests and concerns in communications styles appropriate to each particular public.  The key is to make sure that each message, no matter the target audience, is both easily understood and engaging” (17).  The stakeholders are among those people a public relations practitioner is responsible for building relationships with, making the gathering of information on them a crucial aspect of getting acquainted with XYZ Company as its new Public Relations Director.  Examples of the type of information gathered on those publics are as follows:  age, gender, income, consumer group, education level, and social typology.  There are many variables a Public Relations director must consider with regard to whom a company will target on the long list of those qualifying as stakeholders.

            Not all publics will hold an equal stake in the company.  “A successful organization must continuously establish understanding and support for its products, services and positions among those publics important to its welfare.  And you only get this by applying good public relations principles over time” (Cohn).  It is important to consider not only who has a stake in the company, but why they hold a stake in the company and how strong of one they hold.  “Knowledge of an organization’s publics as well as their stage of development can aid the public relation practitioner in developing the right strategies to build strong relationships…” (24-25).  As the Public Relations Director of XYZ Company it is vital that I know who the organization’s publics are and whether they are latent, aware, active, and/or apathetic.  Patricia Swann, in Cases in Public Relations Management, describes five types of publics in the following way;  1.) non publics, having no interest in an organization, 2.) latent publics, sharing a common interest with the organization, but unaware of what it is doing, 3.) aware publics, meaning the public shares a common interest and pays attention pays attention to the organization’s message, 4.) active, are publics who are interested and actively seeking information on their own, and lastly, 5.) an apathetic public, which is one that is aware, who knows what the organization does, but does nothing (24-25).  These five ways of classifying XYZ’s publics will help me determine what strategies will be formulated for communicating with XYZ’s stakeholders.  Target audiences can include anyone from the following: the media (print and/or broadcast), government, local community, customers, employees, suppliers, financial groups, owners, creative/artistic community, families, college students, sports enthusiasts, medical professionals, critics and pressure groups.  As the Public Relations Director for XYZ Company I have to know who I need to target so that I may communicate a consistent message to them that is framed uniquely and will cater to each different audiences’ need and perceived level of understanding of XYZ Company.

            The final step in getting acquainted with XYZ Company is to do a SWOT analysis on the organization.  “By examining an organization, its environment, and publics based on strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats, a public relations practitioner will be able to develop goals and objectives that really matter” (22).  It is important to analyze any existing trends that can be seen with regard to the company.  This is accomplished by analyzing the products, and/or services offered by the organization as well as by analyzing future markets (22).  Analyzing the organization’s environment allows a public relations practitioner to develop focus for the efforts of its departments.  “Proactive public relations practitioners are constantly scanning their environment, listening to their publics, identifying issues of public concern, analyzing their organization’s actions, and seeking mutually beneficial solutions to problems” (27).  This aspect of the job of a Public Relations Director is continuous and ongoing.  Organizations are always changing and so is the environment that surrounds them, therefore, analyzing these areas of the organization must be performed frequently so that the aim of the public relations plan can be revisited when necessary and adjusted accordingly.  Now that we have determined who we are, who our stakeholders are, and what we as an organization want to accomplish we are ready to set the goals and objectives of our public relations plan. 

            Setting the goals and objectives of a public relations plan is a complex task crucial to measuring its success.  “The situation analysis, the directives of management (through corporate, business and marketing objective setting) and the needs of various departments within the organization combine to provide the basis for the PR department’s objectives” (Baines 107).   Goals may include any of the following: increase attendance or awareness, reputation management, relationship management, increase acceptance or favorability, become a household name, obtain local community involvement in an activity, clarify information on a matter, achieving national or international acknowledgement, or broaden the appeal of a product or service.  Regardless of what XYZ Company strives to achieve, its public relations program must not only include goals and objectives, but the tactics by which they will be completed, a budget, and a schedule for completing them.  Specifying the “who” or target audience, the what, when, where, why, how and how much in a public relations plan helps ensure that the plan remains focused, purposeful, executable, and measurable.  Without pre-determining these factors a plan’s effectiveness may waver. 

            Other factors that will influence the goals of XYZ Company are its mission statement, vision statement, and/or positioning statement, as they determine the direction of its goals.  Developing a mission statement that includes the organization’s purpose and philosophy will help the goals remain on point.  They are the foundation of an organization.  As the managing Director of Public Relations for XYZ Company I will use the mission statement as my guide in representing the company.  “Managers who manage strategically do so by balancing the mission of the organization-what it is, what it wants to be, and what it wants to do-with what the environment will allow or encourage it to do” (Grunig 119).  Strategy is the name of the game; a public relations plan cannot be executed without direction, and a plan of attack.  It is also necessary to evaluate the public relations plan, not only to ensure its effectiveness in reaching the goals and objectives that have been set in relation to the organization’s mission and current standing, but also to provide management with quantifiable results.  To maintain the support of XYZ’s management, it is crucial to remember the need to be able to show where the results of the public relations effort fits into the bottom line.  A PR program within an organization will find itself as strong as the relationships it builds for its company with the company’s stakeholders which is where strategic communication comes into play.

            Now that we have determined who XYZ Company is, who its stakeholders are and how we will go about setting its goals and objectives we are ready to build relationships through strategic communication activities.  Building and maintaining relationships and communicating on behalf of XYZ Company is the essence of representing XYZ Company as the Public Relations Director.  These relationships can be categorized into five areas of communication in which strategies are implemented: Community Relations, Employee Relations, Consumer Relations, Media Relations, and Crisis Communications. 

            Community relations is essential for the success of XYZ Company.   “There are some powerful relationship realities between various community groups and organizations…The citizens and groups that populate its geographic operating area are essential to its operation. The employees live in the community; they very likely grew up there. The company banks in the community. Municipal, county and state governments set the parameters by which the company can operate” and therefore the community deserves the attention and respect of the XYZ Company and it demands a great amount of care in communicating with it (Cohn).  I want XYZ Company to be considered a socially responsible member of the community, a “good neighbor,” whether that means sponsoring events, doing pro-bono work or cause-related marketing.  My plan will include research into and the monitoring of working conditions, compensation, hiring practices, as well as the economic and environmental impact XYZ Company has on the community.  These efforts will be made purposefully, acting alongside the goals and objectives of XYZ Company and the determined need of the community.  

            A public relations practitioner is also responsible for employee relations.  Developing organizational communication policies based on the organization’s goals, such as a code of ethics is an essential part of a quality and productive work environment.  Policy documents and training materials are necessary for sending a consistent message and building organizational support around public relations goals.  Helping to design and implement organizational change programs are also a necessary aspect of the job so that employees within the organization understand changes made and support those changes.  Employees are the heart and soul of the organization that a public relations director represents and, therefore, need careful consideration and attention.  This message, the importance of communications across the chain of command in an organization, is the job of the public relations team to send to management since management plays a significant role in influencing the organizational culture of XYZ Company.  Public Relations is not limited to employees, the job of employee relations within an organization extends to top management as well.  Now, to discuss a more obvious target for the communication activities of XYZ’s public relations team, we will examine consumer relations.

            Consumer relations is not only necessary when an organization needs to obtain feedback, resolve a conflict, or to target different types of consumers (since not all buyers buy for the same reason), but to build mutually beneficial, lasting relationships between the organization and the consumer.  “By paying attention to consumers’ needs and concerns, organizations can develop a long-term relationship resulting in repeat patronage and valuable word-of-mouth endorsements from the consumer sphere of influence” (152).  Consumer relations does not stop after the service or purchase .  Obtaining feedback from the consumer on the level of satisfaction created by a service or product is invaluable to a company’s success as well.  This knowledge would prompt me as the Director of Public Relations at XYZ Company to utilize the web, online reviews, satisfaction surveys, toll free numbers, or customer service representatives in order to seek out responses from consumers after their purchase.  Knowing their wants, needs, and concerns can also help you make adjustments to a product or service, or alter how a product or service is marketed to the public.  This is a good reminder that as the Public Relations Director of XYZ Company I am not only working with my public relations department, but also with the marketing department and human resources to ensure a consistent message is delivered to XYZ’s publics, and to ensure the organization’s departments compliment each other in their efforts on behalf of XYZ.   

            Media relations is another method I would utilize to send messages to XYZ Company’s publics.  “Media relations efforts involve product mentions in the news media to raise awareness.  Public relations practitioners pitch the product to reporters or editors with a news release/media kit or through personal contact…” (153 ).  I will be careful to remember that communicating with the media is not limited to submitting suggestions for stories to journalists and editors.  It is a working relationship that requires care, where trust and mutual respect must be established to maximize one’s media relations potential.  It is not as important how many stories are published or broadcasted.  It matters who they are published by or broadcasted to and how they will be received by their audiences.  A media must be chosen specifically for who they reach with their messages and how they will send them.  If a story is not read by the target audience of XYZ or it is not put across in the desired light then it may in fact do more harm then good. 

            Crisis communication encompasses all communication with all stakeholders in the event of a crisis.  As the Public Relations Director for XYZ Company I am responsible for identifying, prioritizing, coordinating, and managing communication activities during a crisis, putting the public first.  This includes preventative measures such as setting safety guidelines for products, asking what-if questions, conducting risk assessments, environmental scanning, the crafting of potential crisis scenarios, analyzing the nature of potential crisis, planning a response strategy, being accessible during a crisis, as well as assigning roles and responsibilities to those who would be involved in crisis management, and preparing assigned speakers or spokespersons to be the voice of the organization during the crisis.  “Careful thought must be put into the selection of the words and actions taken to address the crisis…an improper response will only compound the damage created by a crisis” (Ledingham 85).  To avoid further damage during a crisis situation, I, as the Public Relations Director for XYZ, would not only plan for potential crisis, but rehearse the execution of crisis response to ensure its efficiency, as well as make sure the plan is revised over time to ensure the longevity of its effectiveness.

            Public relations for XYZ Company begins with a philosophy, a purpose and/or mission.  That mission is then translated into goals and objectives.  The goals and objectives are set to not only provide direction but to make the results of the public relations plan measurable.  To assist in measuring the effectiveness of goals and objectives as well as to stay on track in accomplishing them, they are detailed by the tactics that will be used to accomplish them, a budget, and timeframe with which to complete them.  The tactics are geared toward targeting the specific audiences or publics that were predetermined to be significant to the company’s objective.  XYZ’s publics are targeted through strategic communication tactics so that the image of XYZ, reputation, and relationships are built on trust, are strong, consistent, and will have longevity.  All of this is done with careful consideration to the environment and community with which the business of XYZ is taking place.  As the Public Relations Director of XYZ Company I will revisit plans in order to ensure their effectiveness and validity over time.  Proactive public relations calls for constant monitoring of the environment, the active pursuit of feedback from stakeholders, active listening, and opinion soliciting to anticipate problems and opportunities for XYZ Company.

References

Baines, Paul, Egan, John, & Jefkins, Frank. (2004). Public relations. Butterworth-  Heinemann.

Cohn, M. (n.d.). The Importance of community relations. Retrieved from    http://www.evancarmichael.com/Public-Relations/216/The-Importance-of-      Community-    Relations.html  
Grunig, James. (1992). Excellence in public relations and communication    management.   Lawrence Erlbaum.

Ledingham, John, & Bruning, Stephen. (2001). Public relations as relationship management.        Lawrence Erlbaum.

Oliver, Sandra, Thomson, Stuart, & John, Steve. (2007). Public affairs in practice. Kogan Page Ltd.

Maitland, Iain. (1998). Perfect PR. The Book review. Thomson Learning Emea.

Ruder Finn Inc. (2009). Employee relations. Retrieved from            http://www.ruderfinn.com/corporate-public-trust/employee-relations.html

Swann, Patricia. (2008). Cases in Public Relations Management. New York: McGrawHill.

Managing Conflict through Communication

            Conflicts occur for many reasons.  They are due to differences within societies, between the different genders, due to interpersonal relationship issues, religious beliefs, racial and ethnic differences, political beliefs, economic and power issues, age differences and even occur among those of similar background as well.  Rich Thomson, Director of Research, CPP, Inc. was quoted by PR Newswire (2008) as saying "Conflict is a normal and essential part of the human condition that [we] should work to manage rather than eliminate.  An organization without conflict may also lack that all-important creative spark."  Conflict happens in order to negotiate differences, and for this should be viewed in a positive light.  These differences can be resolved through communication.  This paper will detail my own personal “best practices” approach to conflict resolution through communication based on conflict situations I have experienced in my life, and ones I anticipate could happen in my current or future employment so to provide insight into effective communication devices to solve problems.  I enjoy the following quote by Dr. Neil H. Katz who said, “If all you have is a hammer, then everything looks like a nail.  It’s ideal to have more tools in your toolbox than just one hammer” (Schofield, 2008).  For me, one who used to rely on the “hammer,” I look forward to developing more effective tools for conflict management.    

Before I get into “how” we communicate, for me personally, the best first approach to conflict is to begin with the right frame of mind. 

                        “How people view and engage in conflict plays a big role in whether an issue gets resolved. Some are good listeners and try to hear what their colleagues say. Some people are    power freaks; they dig in their heels and refuse to budge from their position or consider          alternatives. Their "I win/you lose" philosophy destroys rather than builds trusting relationships”      (Bowes, 2008). 

I need to remember this, that the resolution potential of a conflict depends on how I view conflict and how I approach it.  We need to start looking at conflict as a natural part of life because whether we like to admit it or not, it is a part of our daily lives and conflict will happen whether we want it or not, it is inevitable.  We see conflict in our personal lives, at work, at school, and in the societies with which we live.  Because of this, it is better to think of conflict as something we should strive to manage effectively versus avoiding it or by letting the process go uncontrolled. 

            We also need to remember to be responsible for our responses and reactions, and our behavior in conflict situations as those decisions are our choice to control.  If we allow ourselves to be accountable it is easier to consider the other party involved and we may reach resolution more efficiently.  When we actively try to make conflict a process aimed in the direction of resolution we are making a productive effort and being proactive versus reactive.  “In order for one to enter into a state of resolving conflict, one first must be willing to move beyond a past of conviction and blame to a future of positive outcomes and peaceful resolves (Naves, 2006, p.61).  This is a good start, but we need to also think about the basics and that major player in bridging our differences, communication. 

It is easy to forget the basics when presented with conflict; however, it is these basic communication steps pave the road to conflict resolution. Communication is a major feature of conflict development, management and conflict resolution.  Without communication we cannot express our wants, needs or perspectives, nor are we able to listen to or understand the needs, wants or perspectives of another.  To achieve progress in the direction of conflict resolution we first begin by stopping and thinking.        

           To stop and think are both fundamental aspects of communication.  To stop and think is to communicate with purpose.  We must allow ourselves to pause so that we may determine whether the perceived conflict is real or unreal.  We need to stop so that we may determine where the conflict originated, and ask ourselves, what triggered the event, and is there a precedent of this sort of behavior or issue?  When we take care to put our emotions in check before engaging in conflict we are better able to address the “real” issue rather than the effects of it, the hurt, or the pain that may have been caused by it.  An example of this is any situation where something is said about a subject that is a sensitive issue and you are uncertain how what was said was meant.  This happened often for my fiancé and I when we were still in the process of negotiating our roles as parents and figuring out what that meant for our relationship.  We made it through these differences successfully by considering each others perspective on being a parent, being in a romantic relationship, and our new responsibilities as a family.

We must then think about the parties involved, and ask ourselves what we need or hope to achieve in the conflict, what are the needs of the other party involved?  Gudykunst (2004) says, to manage conflicts we must do three things, “we must focus on the other person as an individual,” “we must be aware of how our expectations…influence our communication,” and “we must adapt our style of communication” (p. 296).  If we do not stop to identify the real problem, separate the person from the position they are taking and analyze the issue for what it is we may let raw emotion escalate the issue, blow it out of proportion and potentially move the conflict in the opposite direction of resolution.  This could be detrimental to the relationship with the party involved.  We cannot manage conflict effectively without taking a step back to analyze the problem for what it is.  After we break the problem down we have to listen to the other party to really understand how they feel, and where they stand on the matter at hand.    

            Listening is a basic communication skill that is taken for granted.  Often we think of ourselves as good listeners but in reality we think we understand what the other person is thinking or how they feel and this is not listening. 

“Listening is a desire to pay attention to the other person, characterized by openness to the other person’s views, willingness to suspend judgment during the discussion, patience to hear the other out, and empathic response, to the other person, and a commitment to listen to all that the other person has to say” (Cahn, & Abigail, 2007, p. 291).

The more I read over this definition, the more I feel like I have never fully listened to anyone in my life.  I always think I know what the other person will say and I often am so busy constructing my counterargument that I neglect to truly hear what the other person in my conflicts are saying and feeling.  To find success in conflict resolution we must listen actively.  If we don’t cease what we are doing and thinking to open our minds up to what the other party in our conflict is saying, we cannot suspend our judgments and respond empathically.  Listening takes commitment.  Our other commitment in conflict is to speak effectively. 

            Communicating effectively, during a conflict, means speaking neutrally, cooperatively, and in a non-threatening manner.  We need to choose our words wisely so that the other party involved may gain an understanding of our needs and wants clearly.  Crafting a message is not a simple task.  To approach conflict effectively we must take care and consideration into how we communicate through speech.  If we speak calmly we open the air for a calm response and allow for constructive conversation rather than an argument or heated competitive conflict scenario.  Another reason for doing this is when a power imbalance exists between the involved parties. 

            Sometimes in conflict situations it is beneficial to give up some power to allow the situation to get to common ground and find resolution.  This can be accomplished through speech.  The “skilled use of language is arguably the number one way that power can be reconfigured” and according to Grillo (2005), “language is frequently the way power gets exercised” (Jones, & Brinkert, 2007, p. 120).  This is why we must be conscious of the words and tone we use during conflicts.  A mutually satisfying outcome is not likely to come from a situation where a power imbalance exists.  This is just one of the many things to consider when approaching conflict management.   

            Conflict management starts by considering the situation with which the conflict takes place, the roles that style and strategy play, and ends with a reminder to why we confront conflict at all.  The benefits to making an effort to confront conflict head on should be motivation to take on the process of conflict resolution and manage it effectively.  When facing conflict we need to consider the involved parties, and the occasion itself.

            What to consider when faced with conflict depends on the conflict itself and the parties involved.  According to Cahn and Abigail (2007), “your ability to understand and analyze conflict situations” helps you to “choose the most effective conflict behavior” (p. 42-43).  My personal prescription for conflict management would emphasize not making assumptions.  I am guilty of this on many occasions.  We don’t know another’s intentions unless we allow ourselves to hear them out.  We must consider their side of the situation without these predetermined ideas we allow to roll around in our heads and stew up imagined situations.  If we can do this successfully, than we are opening up the situation to the resolution process where a mutual solution with consideration to both parties involved can emerge.  Understanding the situation puts us on the right path toward conflict management.   

            Another aspect of a conflict to consider is our style and strategy.  Style and strategy both play a role in a conflict situation and therefore in conflict management.  Our style is the strategy or behavior we use most often in a conflict scenario.  For me, I employ an assertive style most often.  Although this can be an effective style for managing conflict, it is not always appropriate.  An example of when one personal style goes horribly wrong when communicating in a particular conflict scenario reminds me of when I was managing a restaurant and therefore in charge of many young servers.  One young lady had a tendency to “call in sick” too often.  This issue had been plaguing me for some time, although my general manager thought highly of her.  One incredibly busy afternoon about a half an hour before her shift she called and sounded upset.  She said she could not come in that night and I said, “That isn’t a surprise” and I hung up.  I had no idea her grandmother had passed away.  I decided because of all that was going on and all of the stress I was dealing with that this little conflict I had with her deserved little sympathy when in reality it deserved sympathy and attention.  I learned that you cannot let the past define every situation and listening can stop you from feeling prolonged periods of guilt like the guilt I felt in this situation.  Each situation can demand a different strategy and you have to listen to the situation before you react.   

            In a situation where I may be confronted by an aggressive style or threatened by a potentially violent scenario, avoidance may be the best option or bringing in a third party, as some conflicts turn into disputes that require assistance from a mediator, or arbitrator or some other higher alternative.  Conflict management is all about determining what the best direction is, and the best approach.  Regardless, the ideal situation would be a collaborative one where the parties involved get to address the situation and add their input.  This leads to the most mutually satisfying outcomes.

            Not only do we have to consider our own style and employ the appropriate strategy in a conflict situation, we also need to be able to recognize style in others.  If we notice that the other party involved is becoming aggressive or is often using an aggressive style we can make the appropriate decision in dealing with that individual.  Some people may not realize that they immediately get defensive in situations where they receive criticism and some are not aware of how they respond due to insecurities.  Because of this we may approach these types of people with a little more ease so not to arouse these defensive reactions. 

            When I engage in conflict with my best girlfriend who more often than not avoids conflict, I know that I cannot be assertive when confronting the situation.  I need to ask her questions about how she is feeling and listen to her so that I can open doors for myself to critique bothersome behavior.  This strategy has been successful and allowed us to maintain a solid relationship for more than sixteen years.  Finding what works is what is really important when dealing with conflict.  The bottom line is more that we are flexible in our strategy and technique so that we can apply our tactics appropriately.  Like I said before, not all conflicts are alike.  Some demand more assertive behavior and others are better suited for a compromise.  There is no doubt that conflict management takes skill and strategy. 

            In a work or a personal situation, another reason to consider the strategy used is to determine the goal of the other party.  If you are aware of the other parties goals you can alter your strategy and tactics accordingly.  Each of the conflict styles may be seen as a basic option for how to proceed in a conflict episode.  They may be used in combination and/or changed within a conflict situation” (Jones, & Bickert, 2007, p. 189).  This reminds us that not only do we need to identify the best approach going into a conflict, but also be flexible in our ability to change that approach during a conflict to get the best results. 

            When it is so much work, why do we bother confronting conflict?  For me, I like to “nip it in the bud” so that I don’t have to keep dealing with the same problem again and again.  I don’t want to be tormented over and over by hurt, stress, or frustration in any relationship or situation.  If a situation or relationship isn’t valued high enough to deal with certain behaviors I believe it is sometimes appropriate to remove oneself from it and move on with life, but not if it means allowing yourself to get back into that situation again in time.  I also don’t believe that it is always in the intentions of another to create conflict.  For the benefit of the other person it is helpful to bring conflict to the surface and to the attention of the other party.  They may be tormenting themselves experiencing the same issue over and over in their life.  It is for the good of all involved now, those who were involved in the past, and those who will be involved in the future. 

            Confronting conflict is for the greater good.  It is only when we make an effort that we can repair what is aching in a relationship or situation, move on from it and turn that negative into a positive in our life.  For example, avoiding my superior at work about his micro managing my work efforts caused me to be less productive and further perpetuated a damaging cycle.  Once I spoke to him about giving me a set amount of time to take on my position without interruption and without as many restrictions, I was able to prove the effectiveness of me being given independence and the relationship is stronger because of it and both sides benefited.  Now, my work relationship and work situation are both more pleasant as well.  

           Knowing what it takes to resolve conflict effectively is only the first step to becoming the ideal conflict manager.  We must be able to find it in ourselves to apply these methods in real life situations.  This takes commitment, a commitment to the other party involved when conflict occurs, a commitment to us so that we may recognize areas that can be improved in us, and a commitment to the process itself. 

For me, personally, I need to remember to practice and learn to be a better listener.  I often take charge of a conflict by becoming competitive, deciding before the conflict resolution process begins that I will am right and so are my assumptions and expectations of the other person, and what the outcome will be.  I also often think that my assertive, straight forward, no sugar coating approach to conflict is right simply because it seems black and white, but it does not consider the emotions of others.  This is the wrong approach to conflict.  I have weaknesses and I do not always do or say the right things in my relationships.  Admitting my shortcomings, for me, is a big step in the right direction.  If I can’t see where I am making mistakes, or if I am not willing to acknowledge those mistakes, I cannot change my conflict management approach.  Another point to remember is that “conflict styles are also sometimes useful for making sense of larger conflict patterns for self and other” (Jones, & Brinkert, 2007, p. 189).   

            I vow to be accountable for my behavior and communication in future conflicts. 

I know that I can improve on my weaknesses if I take the time to analyze the situation, look at it objectively and break it down until I can see the root of the problem I will be better prepared to approach the situation.  Then, once I listen to the other person I will be ready to address the issue from my own perspective and communicate as if in a discussion versus an argument.  This means approaching the conflict with a positive attitude and with the proper strategy.  I will look for cues to decide the best strategy, but also focus on what would be best for both parties, and not exclusively on how I feel the most comfortable expressing myself.  Ideas, opinions and feelings can then be exchanged peacefully, and a collaborative effort may be made so that resolution of the conflict may be possible and also so that the resolution is a mutually satisfying one to the parties involved.  This means letting go of my desire to win and look for win-win solution from now on.  This, I suspect, will ease the process of conflict resolution for me. 

            Conflict management is a process.  “For resolution to take place you must first develop an attitude for resolution.  Without this virtually important factor, you will remain stuck in an array of discord” (Naves, 2006, p.61).  By accepting conflict and seeing it as a manageable process through communication I plan to use my personal “best practices” approach and work toward resolving conflict in my life.  I will do this by remembering to use basic communication skills effectively, to use the appropriate strategy for approaching conflict, and by learning from past conflicts. 

Reference

Schofield, A. (2008, October). Dispute training resolves conflict, promotes harmony. The Business           Journal - Central New York, 22(42), 11. Retrieved June 1, 2010, from ProQuest Newsstand.           (Document ID: 1597005841).

Bowes, B. (2008, June 11). Resolving conflict to benefit staff; Make it work Find the cause then apply    strategy. Daily Gleaner,D.8. Retrieved June 1, 2010, from Canadian Newsstand Complete.             (Document ID: 1492801181).

Cahn, D., Abigail, R. (2007). Managing conflict through communication. Pearson Education, Inc.

Gudykunst, W. B. (2004). Bridging differences: effective intergroup communication. Sage Publications,    Inc.

Jones, T., & Brinkert, R. (2007). Conflict coaching. Sage Publications, Inc.

Naves, Anita. (2006). Power principles for peaceful living: through anger management, conflict    resolution, effective communication & destructive behavior elimination. AuthorHouse.

PR Newswire. (2008). New Study Details Both Crippling and Beneficial Effects of Workplace Conflict on Businesses :$359 Billion in Paid Hours Attributed to Workplace Conflict. (6 October).      Retrieved June 1, 2010, from ProQuest Newsstand. (Document ID: 1567883471).